Business, Financial & Concentration Risk

⚠️ Category orientation — read first

This chapter covers NON-SYSTEMATIC risk (also called unsystematic risk) — the security-specific category, not the market-wide systematic category.

🔑 The category definition, word-for-word from the companion systematic risks chapter:

Non-systematic risks occur when a circumstance or event affects a specific security or a small sector of the market and may cause investment losses. This risk tends to apply on a security-by-security basis.

Does diversification eliminate/reduce it? ⚠️ Yes — this is the defining contrast with systematic risk. The page’s Key points state non-systematic risks “can be reduced through diversification,” and the body text says: “A common theme across non-systematic risks is that diversification can reduce their impact.” Diversification is listed as a hedge for every named risk in this chapter except counterparty risk, for which the page lists no hedge.

🔑 Complete list of non-systematic risks

There are numerous non-systematic risks, or unsystematic risks, to be aware of:

1. Business risk
2. Financial risk
3. Concentration risk
4. Currency exchange risk
5. Liquidity (marketability) risk
6. Default (credit) risk
7. Call risk
8. Regulatory risk
9. Legislative risk
10. Political risk
11. Counterparty risk

Complete non-systematic risk table

Business risk

A company’s business revenue declines, typically due to competition or mismanagement.

Applies to: Common stock

• Common stock values tend to decline when business revenues decline because investors often expect lower future earnings, which can reduce demand for the stock.
• This is a common risk for common stocks because issuers are required to report their financial results quarterly (on Form 10-Q). Stock prices can fall quickly if those results show declining business revenue.
• Example given: PayPal’s stock price dropped 25% after reporting disappointing revenue in early February 2022.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

A common theme across non-systematic risks is that diversification can reduce their impact. If you want to avoid being heavily exposed to business risk in one company (like PayPal), you generally wouldn’t put all your money into that single stock.

Financial risk

A company’s ability to function is impacted by the amount of money it owes to creditors.

Applies to: Common stock

• Borrowing too much money can significantly hinder business operations. The more a company borrows, the more its interest and repayment obligations can reduce earnings (profitability).
• 🔑 Common stock investors pay close attention to earnings, and stock indicators like EPS (earnings per share) are closely tracked. When a company’s EPS declines due to large debt levels, the stock price is also likely to decline.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Concentration risk

A lack of diversification negatively impacts an investor’s overall portfolio when the few securities owned lose value.

Applies to: All securities

• Concentration risk can apply no matter what type of security an investor holds. When a portfolio isn’t diversified, a large decline in one or a few holdings can have an outsized impact on the overall portfolio.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Currency exchange risk

Currency value fluctuations negatively impact the value of a security.

Applies to: Foreign investments

• ⚠️ An investor may be subject to currency exchange risk whether a currency weakens or strengthens.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Liquidity (marketability) risk

The inability to sell a security, or the need to offer it at a significant discount in order to sell it.

Applies to:

• Penny stocks

• Municipal bonds

• Junk bonds

• Hedge funds

• Structured products

• Limited partnerships

• 🔑 A simple way to think about this risk is: if a security is difficult (or impossible) to sell at a reasonable price, it has liquidity (marketability) risk.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Default (credit) risk

An issuer is unable to make required interest and/or principal payments on its debt obligations.

Applies to:

• Debt securities (in general)

• Junk bonds (in particular)

• If you lend your friend money and they never pay you back, your friend has defaulted on the loan. The same idea applies when an investor lends money to an organization by purchasing a bond.

• 🔑 Junk bonds, which are rated BB or below, have a higher risk of default. In general, the lower the debt rating, the more likely a default will occur.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Call risk

Interest rates fall, leading issuers to refinance by calling older securities with high coupons and reissuing new securities with lower coupons. Investors whose securities are called are then forced to reinvest at a lower rate of return.

Applies to:

• Callable debt securities

• Callable preferred stock

• ⚠️ Call risk is the worst version of reinvestment risk, but it only applies to callable securities.

🔑 The securities most likely to be called tend to share these characteristics:

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Regulatory risk

A government agency creates a new rule or regulation that negatively impacts a business or an issuer’s securities.

Applies to: Common stock (sector)

• ⚠️ Regulations tend to apply on a sector-by-sector basis. For example, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates energy companies (e.g. oil, natural gas) in order to protect the environment. If the EPA created a rule requiring higher standards for cleaning up drilling sites, energy companies could see declining profits (even if the rule benefits the environment). Declining profits typically lead to lower stock prices.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Legislative risk

A law approved by Congress and signed into law by the President negatively impacts a business or an issuer’s securities.

Applies to: All securities

New laws can negatively impact all types of securities. For example, a new law might:

Any of these scenarios would negatively impact the securities involved.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Political risk

An unstable government structure negatively impacts a business or issuer’s security.

Applies to: Foreign investments

• Although the US has faced its own governmental issues, truly unstable governments tend to be outside of the US. A lack of a strong or independent governmental structure can lead to coups, nationalization of sectors, or invasions from other countries. These actions could result in losses for securities issued by these governments or by businesses within these countries.

Ways to hedge: Diversification

Counterparty risk

Counterparty risk is the risk that the other party in a financial transaction (the counterparty) will fail to fulfill their end of the agreed-upon deal, resulting in a default on a payment or delivery.

• 🔑 This risk is most common in over-the-counter (OTC) trades because a central clearinghouse does not back the contracts, and they are privately negotiated.
• Without a third-party guarantee, one side could default, especially during times of market stress and instability.
• ⚠️ OTC derivatives like swaps and forwards carry counterparty risk.

Key points

Non-systematic risks

• Risks unique to specific companies or securities
• Can be reduced through diversification
• Includes: business, financial, concentration, currency exchange, liquidity, default, call, regulatory, legislative, political, counterparty risks

Business risk

• Company revenue declines due to competition/mismanagement
• Impacts common stock values
• Hedge: diversification

Financial risk

• Company burdened by excessive debt
• Reduces earnings and stock price
• Hedge: diversification

Concentration risk

• Lack of diversification in portfolio
• Large losses if few holdings decline
• Hedge: diversification

Currency exchange risk

• Value affected by currency fluctuations
• Applies to foreign investments
• Hedge: diversification

Liquidity (marketability) risk

• Difficulty selling security at reasonable price
• Applies to penny stocks, municipal bonds, junk bonds, hedge funds, structured products, limited partnerships
• Hedge: diversification

Default (credit) risk

• Issuer fails to make interest/principal payments
• High in debt securities, especially junk bonds (rated BB or below)
• Hedge: diversification

Call risk

• Callable securities redeemed early when rates fall
• Investors reinvest at lower rates
• Applies to callable debt and preferred stock
• Hedge: diversification

Regulatory risk

• New government agency rules harm business/securities
• Often sector-specific (e.g., EPA and energy companies)
• Hedge: diversification

Legislative risk

• New laws negatively affect securities
• Applies to all securities (e.g., tax law changes)
• Hedge: diversification

Political risk

• Unstable government impacts foreign investments
• Includes coups, nationalization, invasions
• Hedge: diversification

Counterparty risk

• Other party in transaction defaults on obligations
• Common in OTC trades and derivatives (swaps, forwards)
• No central clearinghouse backing

Sources

Primary/official references for the material in this chapter. Every link was fetched and returned HTTP 200 on 2026-08-15.